Intelligence exists within four different contexts
Lindsay
Intelligence exists within four different contexts, including actions that produce knowledge, the knowledge that is produced, organizations dealing in knowledge, and reports and briefings that come from the process or organization (Prunckun, 2019). Intelligence only exists after data has been analyzed and given meaning to reduce uncertainty, and it can be categorized into four broad functions, including espionage, observation, research and analysis, and covert operations, that are linked by the keystone of counterintelligence and create the Intelligence Quadrangle. Espionage and observation support research and analysis, and all three of these then support covert operations. Espionage is the typical way to gather information, where agents go undercover to gather information. Observation is viewing information in methods other than using an agent, including the use of technology like audio surveillance, radio frequency, photographs, satellites, and drones, along with using open-source data collection. Observation is a catch-all category for everything except espionage. Research and analysis involve using the ideas of applied research to process, evaluate, and interpret information collected from various sources to then form a product like a briefing, profile, assessment, estimate, or another type of report that is disseminated to an end user. Covert operations use various methods to gather information, including research and analysis, but they also involve advice, counsel, support that can be material or financial, and technical assistance to those opposed to or competing against an adversary or target. By using information gathered through espionage, observation, and research and analysis, allies are strengthened, opponents are destroyed, and events, decisions, and opinions in other states are influenced, all while remaining hidden and maintaining plausible deniability.
The two related and interdependent fields that comprise the anatomy of counterintelligence are counterintelligence and counterespionage (Prunckun, 2019). Counterintelligence is both an activity and a product and is the branch of intelligence work that is concerned with deterrence and detection in order to protect secrets using security defensively and offensively. According to the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (n.d.), the study of foreign intelligence entities and how they behave is the basis for all counterintelligence work. Counterespionage is the acquisition of data from the opposition’s intelligence service and is concerned with the detection, deception, and effectiveness neutralization of the intelligence activities of an adversary (Prunckun, 2019). Counterintelligence and counterespionage work together, and while counterintelligence can be seen as defensive, counterespionage is a subtle and sophisticated offensive measure that allows for the acquisition of classified information or the feeding of disinformation. It is possible that counterespionage would not be possible without counterintelligence practices.
Intelligence can be operational, tactical, or strategic, but counterintelligence is taxonomically categorized as either defense or offense (Prunckun, 2019). Activities contributing to deterrence and detection make up the defense category of counterintelligence while activities relating to detection, deception, and neutralization make up the offense category of counterintelligence. Detection can be both, as it can help secure information or help identify those who have breached controls. This defense and offense taxonomic model can also be applied to the various types of counterintelligence. In counterintelligence, deterrence is preventing an opponent from gaining access to information either by discouraging the undertaking of an operation or denying the operation once it has begun. Deterrence relies on the threat of unacceptable damage, the perception of the threat, and the credibility, that is the capability and will, of that threat. This is achieved through physical, information, personnel, and communications security. Detection is noticing that an event of concern has occurred that is associated with a breach, or potential breach, of confidential information and identifying who was involved along with their organizational associations. This information can also be used offensively for a counteroperation. Deception involves misleading an opponent about operations, capabilities, or intentions or concealing those involved in an operation with the goal of making the opponent’s acts futile, causing confusion to delay the opponent, or providing a false understanding that wastes an opponent’s time and resources. The use of double agents, dummy agents, decoys, camouflage, pretexts, and ruses all fall under the category of deception. Neutralization is blocking an opponent’s operation through destruction, paralysis, or a loss of interest, enthusiasm, or confidence.
The typology of counterintelligence involves five major counterintelligence types that are based on the environment in which they operate (Prunckun, 2019). This includes national security, military, law enforcement, business, and private, although there can be substantial overlap between the types. National security counterintelligence includes that conducted by armed forces, diplomatic services, or law enforcement, and military counterintelligence is conducted by the military. The role of law enforcement counterintelligence is not clearly defined, and it can be spread across multiple disjointed areas, including those not directly under police purview. While lower levels of law enforcement have fewer risks, and therefore put fewer resources toward counterintelligence, national levels of law enforcement like the Federal Bureau of Investigation create specific branches. Business counterintelligence involves protecting trade information and monitoring competitor activity in the marketplace, and it can range from security actions to marketing. Private counterintelligence is conducted by an entity for a fee or reward and can overlap with business and national security counterintelligence. It goes beyond the work of a private investigator, although that work is an important part of private counterintelligence, and can range from information security to personal protection.
To ensure that it is both efficient and effective, a counterintelligence program must be based on a theoretical foundation (Prunckun, 2019). There have been many thrown-together and context-specific definitions and a few attempts to formulate a theory of counterintelligence in the past, along with information on counterintelligence practices and areas that must be improved, but still, an articulated theory has not been created. Grounded theory is used to develop a theory by grounding the theory in observation or practice. Themes are identified and inductive logic assigns meaning to the themes. To develop the grounded theory behind counterintelligence, secondary data sources from the public domain, including that from sources like scholarly journal articles, textbooks, field and training manuals, government reports and publications, and memoirs, were used. A question was posed, qualitative data was collected, key themes were separated, and connections were hypothesized, resulting in a theory. This theory states that the seven assumptions of counterintelligence are based on the concepts of deterrence, detection, deception, and neutralization applied across various contexts. The seven assumptions proposed by the theory are operational surprise, data collection, targeting, resources, the paradox of fiction, operational failures, and analysis. Operational surprise is achieved by maintaining secrecy. Data collection is undertaken by an opponent using various means and all avenues, so the worst case must be considered. An opponent will target data that will expose an agency and its operations. Staff and resources, which are often expensive, are necessary for counterintelligence to occur. The paradox of fiction is employed to alter perceptions and create emotional experiences that lead to the belief that a fictional situation is real using illusions or distortions of the senses. Risk is a part of all endeavors, including counterintelligence, so failures must not paralyze an agency and must be avenged. Finally, analysis lies at the core of counterintelligence. Intelligence and counterintelligence are imperative for decision-making. As 2 Peter 1:5 states, “For this reason, make every effort to add to your faith goodness; and to goodness, knowledge” (New International Bible, 1978/2011).
References
New International Bible. (2011). Zondervan. (Original work published 1978)
Office of the Director of National Intelligence. (n.d.). The National Counterintelligence and Security Center. Retrieved October 23, 2022, from https://www.dni.gov/index.php/ncsc-homeLinks to an external site.
Prunckun, H. (2019). Counterintelligence theory and practice (2nd ed.). Rowman & Littlefield.
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